Comparative Political Theology

Author: Erich Kofmel

Managing Director, Sussex Centre for the Individual and Society (SCIS); University of Sussex and Sciences Po/The Institute for Political Studies (IEP) in Paris

e.kofmel@sussex.ac.uk, e.kofmel@scis-calibrate.org

A paper presented at the Fourth General Conference of the European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR), Section "Political Theology as Political Theory", Panel "Political Theology and Theological Politics", University of Pisa, Italy, 6 September 2007

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Abstract

For a research project I engaged in from 2004-2007, I gathered and analysed statements made by representatives of Islamist terrorist movements on the Internet and compared key themes of their ideology (such as "democracy", "capitalism", "globalization", "colonialism" and "underdevelopment") to the writings and ideology of authors in various traditions of Christian "political theology". In this paper, it is being established that there are clear similarities in the socio-political analysis advanced by Christian political and liberation theologians and representatives of Islamist terrorist movements and radical Islam, respectively. The paper also offers a short history and extended discussion of the concept of "political theology" and elaborates on radical Islam's understanding of theology and politics. Primary and secondary literature on Christian and Islamic political and liberation theologies and radical Islam are being reviewed (including the most recent writings on "political theology" emanating from, mainly leftist, theory circles in Europe and the US). In an attempt to expand the term "political theology" to cover the socio-political analysis, arguments, and ideology of radical Islam, anti-liberalism is revealed as the single most important factor underlying all political theology. The argument is made that being anti-liberal means being (at least potentially) anti-democratic as well. A discussion of future lines of academic inquiry opens up the possibility of a common definition or framework covering all forms of political and liberation theologies and asks whether comparative political theology may be the ultimate political theory.

Table of contents

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Preliminary remark on "terrorism" – 1.2 Purpose of study – 1.3 Methodology and outline of the paper

Chapter 2: The concept of "political theology"

2.1 Carl Schmitt – 2.2 The German debate, 1922-85 – 2.3 The "new political theology" of J. B. Metz and its relation to Schmitt – 2.4 The socio-political analysis of Christian "political theology" – 2.4.1 Metz – 2.4.2 Political theologies in Europe and North America – 2.4.3 Liberation theologies in Latin America, Asia, and Africa – 2.4.3.1 Liberation theology, political theology, and the Church – 2.4.3.2 Dependency and development, democracy and capitalism – 2.4.3.3 Liberation and Marxism – 2.4.3.4 Revolution and violence

Chapter 3: The politico-theological analysis of radical Islam

3.1 "Democracy/Capitalism" versus Islam – 3.2 "Globalization/Americanization" - 3.3 Colonialism and moral corruption - 3.4 American and Israeli atrocities - 3.5 Jihad: theology is politics - 3.6 One state under Allah: the Caliphate

Chapter 4: The resurgence of political theology

4.1 On the relationship of political theology and liberation theology – 4.2 Islamic political and liberation theologies – 4.3 On radical Islam – 4.3.1 Causes and extent of Islamic fundamentalism – 4.3.2 Secularism, democracy, and the nation-state – 4.3.3 History and ideological roots of jihad – 4.4 Slavoj Žižek and the new debate

Chapter 5: Conclusion

5.1 Radical Islam as a political theology – 5.2 Remembrance, solidarity, and praxis – 5.3 Anti-liberalism and democracy – 5.4 Future lines of inquiry

References

Acknowledgements

The research underlying this paper was undertaken for the degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil) in Theology at St Augustine College of South Africa, the Catholic university of South Africa. It counted 70% toward the degree from which I will be graduating with distinction on 9 November 2007.

My supervisor, Dr Anthony Egan, gave me encouragement and did not unnecessarily interfere with the research or writing up of the study, which agreed with my working style. He showed patience over the course of two and a half years, from the research proposal (in October 2004) through the period of research (2004/05) and the nine months during which my registration was in abeyance (coinciding with his sabbatical leave in 2006/07) to the finished research paper (in May 2007). While I gratefully acknowledge Dr Egan's input and advice, I bear sole responsibility for the final product.

I would like to thank Dr Egan and the staff of St Augustine College for the academic and administrative support I received while living abroad and studying concurrently for my European Doctorate / Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) degree in Social and Political Thought at the University of Sussex, England (since October 2005), and Sciences Po/The Institute for Political Studies in Paris (2007/08).

Apart from the library at St Augustine, I made use of the libraries at the University of the Witwatersrand (Wartenweiler, Cullen, Commerce, and Management branches as well as the Interlibrary Loans department), the Auckland Park library of the University of Johannesburg (formerly Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit/RAU), the library at the University of Sussex at Brighton, England (including interlibrary loans), and finally the British Library in London. My thanks go to the staff of all those libraries.

For the Internet research and during the stages of drafting and writing up this paper, I had the opportunity to make use of computing facilities at St Augustine, Witwatersrand (Graduate School of Public and Development Management) and Sussex (School of Social Sciences and Cultural Studies).

The research centre whose Managing Director I am, the Sussex Centre for the Individual and Society (SCIS), is proud to count Prof Francis Schüssler Fiorenza of Harvard Divinity School, a leading expert on political theology, among the members of its International Advisory Board.

I would like to thank all the participants in the SCIS-organised section "Political Theology as Political Theory" at the Fourth General Conference of the European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR) and in the Second Annual International Symposium of SCIS, "The Resurgence of Political Theology", taking place 6-8 September 2007 at the University of Pisa and the Hotel Santa Croce in Fossabanda in Pisa, Italy. They as well as Prof Mahmoud Sadri, Prof John Milbank, Prof Kenneth Reinhard, and Prof Gordon Graham (to mention only those whose names come to my mind now) engaged in intellectual exchange with me on the subject of political theology during the period of writing up – and bringing up to date – this research.

Prof Heinrich Meier was kind enough to send me some of his writings not easily accessible in England, including his essay, "Was ist Politische Theologie? What is Political Theology?", updated and republished in 2006, and copies of articles of his on Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss.

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Preliminary remark on "terrorism"

I am aware that the term "terrorism" in many parts of the world has connotations that are – for historical reasons – somewhat different from the "West". Being European, I am however writing from a Western perspective and use the term "terrorism" in the meaning it has acquired in the politico-scientific discourse on violent Islamist attacks against (mainly) Western (or perceived Western-influenced) targets all over the world. Sometimes, today's terrorist movements are tomorrow's lauded liberators from political oppression (as, for example, in South Africa). That is the unknown course of history. Nevertheless, I think that the term "terrorists" appropriately describes the outside view on a movement of resistance against a given socio-political situation that employs violent means (particularly mass murder) against its (perceived) enemies (or sometimes its own people) in order to achieve its political goals. Of course, "terrorists" are always the others.

1.2 Purpose of the study

Although Islamist terrorists use information technology very actively, terrorist statements in Arabic are routinely removed from the Internet (by governmental authorities and/or private, largely Jewish, initiatives) as soon as they appear (for instance as postings in Islamist fora and newsgroups). Links to websites hardly ever work: "This site has been removed from the server". Only a small part of terrorist statements has been translated into English, and very few (available) Islamist websites are being published (partly) in English. Because of the restricted access to original sources, documents and messages, it is difficult for people in the West and in the Arab world alike to know what the terrorists really want and fight for (or against).

If we wish to understand the motivation driving adherents of radical Islam and, indeed, terrorists it is of utmost importance for us to explore and analyse at least the available translated terrorist statements. All too often the "War Against Terrorism" (or "The Long War" – a war, some say, for hearts and minds) is fought on the basis of propaganda that does not sufficiently engage the politico-theological arguments of the terrorists. Only once we take seriously the terrorists' own statements will we be able to understand that, in the terrorists' view, there is an "inherent incompatibility between the belief of the people, Islam, and the system being forced down their throats" in the process of globalization by the United States and the West, "Democracy/Capitalism" (British website Al Muhajiroun, 2004f: par. 7). The prophet Muhammad

struggled to uproot all man made laws and systems in order to replace them with Islam, while Democracy/Capitalism zealously pursues the establishment of man made laws (par. 8).

Speaking of fundamentalist Muslims we should never forget that the very word Islam means "to submit" to the rule of Allah (Castells, 2002: 14). "The Muslim MUST reject anything that is obeyed, worshipped, followed or submitted to other than Allah" including the devil, "all the present rulers in the world, the United Nations, British Law, Freedom, Democracy, Secularism, Liberalism" (Al Muhajiroun, 2004h: par. 11).

Thus, Islam is inherently political. In Islam theology is politics. Theology cannot be separated from or replaced by politics, it seems.

In this paper I will suggest that representatives of terrorist movements such as al-Qaeda see an intrinsic linkage between democracy and capitalism and that they operate from the premises that whoever wants to fight capitalism, and maybe sees globalization as today's primary manifestation of it, needs to abandon democracy and its values first. Whoever wants to fight capitalism, it appears, needs to fight democracy as well (see Kofmel, 2004, on various other traditions of a linkage between democracy and capitalism, for example classic liberalism, modernization theory, and empirical evidence).

In contrast to this, Christian "political theology" often aims at establishing democratic and humane conditions where no such exist. Many of its proponents assume (as does, for example, the anti-/alter-globalization movement: Kofmel, 2004) that a non-capitalist democracy is possible. This very notion, in spite of political theologians' arguing for a political role of religion, is based on Western secularism and the separation of politics and religion that is possible in Christianity but is arguably not possible in Islam. While most political and liberation theologians advocate non-violence, some (for example in the Philippines and Nicaragua) justified violent means in the struggle for (political) liberation.

At the same time, the terrorists quite often refer to or appear to be influenced by older (non-violent) traditions of radical Islam. I will therefore not exclusively focus on the violent component of radical Islam, but also take into account earlier and non-violent expressions of this line of thought.

It will be interesting to see to what extent the socio-political analysis of globalization/colonialism, underdevelopment, poverty, etc. of the various kinds of Christian "political theology" meets the socio-political analysis of Islamist terrorist movements and radical Islam and where they differ.

As a hypothesis I will assume that there are clear similarities in some key themes of the socio-political analysis of Christian political and liberation theologians and representatives of Islamist terrorist movements and radical Islam, respectively (particularly regarding "democracy", "capitalism", "globalization", "colonialism", and "underdevelopment").

1.3 Methodology and outline of the paper

The hypothesis I postulate is to be tested primarily by method of "literature" review and comparative analysis. There are a number of Internet-based archives such as the Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI) and Why War? that collect English translations (mostly from Arabic) of statements by leading representatives of terrorist organizations. I will explore and analyse these texts. Other parts of the research paper will be based on a very extensive exploratory literature review on Islam, "terrorism" and various traditions of "political theology".

In the immediately following second chapter I will define the term "political theology" and offer a short history and extended discussion of the concept and socio-political analysis advanced by political and liberation theologians.

In the third chapter I will analyse statements by representatives of Islamist terrorist movements posted on the Internet. Both in the second and third chapter I will focus on key themes such as democracy, capitalism, globalization, colonialism, and underdevelopment. I will argue that the terrorists view democracy and capitalism as inextricably linked and elaborate on radical Islam's understanding of theology and politics.

In the fourth chapter I will review secondary (and some primary) literature on Christian and Islamic political and liberation theologies and how they interlink and compare. I will situate Islamist terrorism within Islam by reviewing a number of recent publications by Western authors and some Islamic scholars concerning Islam, terrorism and (non-)violence. Can it be argued that the political analysis in mainstream Islam is the same as in the terrorist movements and that the difference lies in the theology/politics of (non-)violence? Furthermore, I will review authors (particularly theologians) who have written on terrorism and radical Islam from an explicitly Christian perspective and will see if someone has written on it in the context of "political theology". Finally, I will explore the most recent writings on "political theology" emanating from (mainly leftist) theory circles in Europe and the US.

In the last chapter I will compare radical Islam and Christian "political theology", asking whether (as I assume as a hypothesis) there are clear similarities in key themes of the socio-political analysis of and the arguments advanced by Christian political and liberation theologians and representatives of Islamist terrorist movements and radical Islam, respectively. If my study proves this hypothesis to be well-founded, I will argue that there is a kind of "political theology" underlying Islamist terrorism and radical Islam that can be set in relation to the Christian concepts of political theology and theology of liberation, and I will attempt to expand the term "political theology" to cover the socio-political analysis, arguments and ideology of radical Islam.

The validity and reliability of my research findings may be affected by a number of limitations that I cannot easily evade.

While English translations of terrorists' statements are conveniently to be found on the Internet, translators are not usually named and it is not possible to check the reliability of the translations – most of them hail from websites that are opposed to terrorism. I do not have the possibility to compare the English translation to the original Arabic terms and their meanings.

It is also not possible to verify if the statements made by the terrorists (or Christian political and liberation theologians, for that matter, for example with regard to non-violence) correspond to their real intentions.

Given the restrictions of a research paper, I will not be able to elaborate on many interesting side tracks, such as the Christian tradition of a "just war", dating back to the Middle Ages, or the intricacies of political theology arising in violent environments in the Philippines, Nicaragua and South Africa. When analysing political theology I will have to restrict myself to the ideology and beliefs expressed and the reasons given, with little possibility to research the historical context in which these ideologies and beliefs arose.

I will only be able to cover the most relevant authors in any one of the fields of literature reviewed. My analysis both of the statements of Islamist terrorist movements and Christian political theology will have to be restricted to socio-political key themes (such as how they view the nature of the linkage between democracy and capitalism, globalization, colonialism, underdevelopment) in order to be manageable.

Due to a lack of available data, I will abstain from comparing the organizational structures of radical Islam (terrorist movements) and Christian "political theology" (for example movements of liberation) and focus on the analysis and comparison of the underlying ideologies and beliefs.

The interpretation and analysis of data and information is, of course, qualitative and subjective.

While it could be deemed unethical to provide a platform for the thought of terrorist groups, I am of opinion that it must be possible to explore and analyse the terrorists' arguments in an academic setting.

Chapter 2: The concept of "political theology"

2.1 Carl Schmitt

The term "political theology" is generally said to have been coined in 1922 by a German professor of law, Carl Schmitt, in an essay of the same title, Politische Theologie: Vier Kapitel zur Lehre von der Souveränität – Political theology: four chapters on the concept of sovereignty (1985/22 and 1979/22). According to a remark in a little regarded later article by Schmitt (1965: 65), it appears however that, earlier in the same year, the first three chapters of that now famous essay had been published under the title Soziologie des Souveränitätsbegriffs und politische Theologie (Sociology of the concept of sovereignty and political theology; my translation) in the collection Hauptprobleme der Soziologie. Erinnerungsgabe für Max Weber (Main problems of sociology: Souvenir for Max Weber; my translation), edited by Melchior Pâlyi (Böckenförde, 1983: 19, takes this as evidence for the significance of Politische Theologie for a sociology of concepts and in particular legal and constitutional concepts). Chapter four of the essay, according to the same notice, had first been published in Archiv für Rechts- und Wirtschaftsphilosophie, an academic journal, also earlier in the year 1922. While Schmitt himself argued convincingly against Alois Dempf who, in a 1969 article, credited Erik Peterson with originating the term "political theology" (Schmitt, 1970: 21) – which may in fact have triggered the publication of a follow-up, Politische Theologie II, in 1970, in which Schmitt sought to refute Peterson's contributions to the study of political theology (Schmitt, 1970) –, Heinrich Meier traces the term just as convincingly back to Bakunin's derogatory 1871 attack, La Théologie politique de Mazzini et l'Internationale (Meier, 2006: 22). It remains unclear whether Schmitt knew Bakunin's text.

Schmitt's main thesis has it that the political organization of a society always reflects the religious or theological beliefs (or non-beliefs) of that society and time: "The metaphysical image that a definite epoch forges of the world has the same structure as what the world immediately understands to be appropriate as a form of its political organization" (1985/22: 46; Ball points out that already Descartes and Leibniz knew of the existence of such analogies: 1983/24: 112). This idea is based on the notion of "the two kingdoms and spheres of the teaching of St Augustine", the two "societates perfectae", "Civitas Dei and Civitas Terrena – religion and politics, kingdom come and earthly kingdom [Jenseits und Diesseits]", "Church and state" – and transcends it in the secular twentieth century (Schmitt, 1970: 18-19; my translation; Schmitt's italics; St Augustine and Varro are frequently identified as critics of an early form of practized "political theology", namely Roman "civil religion": see, for example, Meier, 2006: 21-22; also Koslowski, 1983: 31, on the subjugation of "the truth of religion to its political usefulness" in ancient "political theology"; my translation; Blumenberg, 1983: 101, refers to Aristotle's promotion of "the idea of religion being 'tantum politicam inventionem' [only a political invention]"; Blumenberg's brackets; my italics).

All significant concepts of the modern theory of the state are secularized theological concepts not only because of their historical development – in which they were transferred from theology to the theory of the state, whereby, for example, the omnipotent God became the omnipotent lawgiver (Schmitt, 1985/22: 36).

Schmitt, whose essay is primarily concerned with the concept of sovereignty, holds that "[t]he 'omnipotence' of the modern lawgiver, of which one reads in every textbook on public law, is not only linguistically derived from theology" (38). The "miracle in theology" is for Schmitt analogous to the "exception" in a state's legal order – that is, a state of emergency (36).

Only by being aware of this analogy can we appreciate the manner in which the philosophical ideas of the state developed in the last centuries. The idea of the modern constitutional state triumphed together with deism, a theology and metaphysics that banished the miracle from the world. This theology and metaphysics rejected not only the transgression of the laws of nature through an exception brought about by direct intervention, as is found in the idea of a miracle, but also the sovereign's direct intervention in a valid legal order. The rationalism of the Enlightenment rejected the exception in every form (36-37).

Schmitt's concept of political theology applies equally, for instance, to the seventeenth century in which "the monarch is identified with God and has in the state a position exactly analogous to that attributed to God in the Cartesian system of the world" (46), "the 'neutral' power of the nineteenth century, 'which reigned but did not rule,'" and later "conceptions of the pure measure and administrative state, 'which administers but does not rule'" (1-2). While the "liberal constitutionalism" of France's July Monarchy "attempted to paralyze the king through parliament but permitted him to remain on the throne – an inconsistency committed by deism when it excluded God from the world but held onto his existence" (59) –, the liberalism of Schmitt's days "discusses and negotiates every political detail, so it also wants to dissolve metaphysical truth in a discussion" (63). "Although the liberal bourgeoisie wanted a god, its god could not become active; it wanted a monarch, but he had to be powerless" (59).

Tocqueville in his account of American democracy observed that in democratic thought the people hover above the entire political life of the state, just as God does above the world, as the cause and the end of all things, as the point from which everything emanates and to which everything returns (49).

Democracy and that the "the people became the sovereign" (48) is "as self-evident in the consciousness of that period as" monarchy was in an earlier time (46). Even "the economic postulates of free trade and commerce are, for an examination within the realm of the history of ideas, only derivatives of a metaphysical core" (62).

In the "battle against God" (50),

the radicals who opposed all existing order directed, with heightened awareness, their ideological efforts against the belief in god altogether, fighting that belief as if it were the most fundamental expression of the belief in any authority and unity (50).

They proclaimed "that mankind had to be substituted for God" (51).

It is important to note that since the twentieth century, in Schmitt's opinion, there can be no theology anymore that is not political:

We have come to recognize that the political is the total, and as a result we know that any decision about whether something is unpolitical is always a political decision, irrespective of who decides and what reasons are advanced. This also holds for the question whether a particular theology is a political or an unpolitical theology (2; his italics).

In his subsequent essay, Politische Theologie II: Die Legende von der Erledigung jeder Politischen Theologie (Political Theology II: The legend of all political theology having been finished off; my rough translation; 1970), Schmitt explains that "the historically inherited institutions of Church and state had successfully been challenged by a revolutionary class ..., the industrial proletariat", a "new subject of the political", and to it "the state lost the monopoly of the political" (1970: 24; my translation; his italics). "The two 'kingdoms'" of St Augustine are not clearly distinguishable anymore (Schmitt, 1970: 23; my translation). It is true that there has always been the Thomas-Hobbes-question

Quis judicabit? Quis interpretabitur? Who decides in concreto ... what is religious and what is secular and what is the case with the res mixtae that make up, in the interim between the arrival and the return of the Lord, the entire earthly existence of this religious-secular, spiritual-temporal double being man? (107; my translation; Schmitt's italics)

However: "Today the political can no longer be defined from the state, but that what still can be called state today has rather to be defined and understood from the political" (25; my translation). Besides the industrial proletariat there are now many other non-state political actors, one must add.

2.2 The German debate, 1922-85

In 1970, Schmitt also discussed how the concept of political theology had developed in the legal, political and theological thought of Germany and the German-speaking countries between 1922 and 1969. He recalls a vivid academic debate in these countries of which we may be largely unaware today. (For a discussion of Schmitt's reception in Spain since 1929, including his Politische Theologie and Politische Theologie II, see Beneyto, 1983: 20-61 and bibliography, 190-215.) In support of his argument Schmitt points to a number of publications (that are not easily – or not at all – available in English) such as (in chronological order) in 1924 an article on Politische Theologie by Hugo Ball, the former actor, dramaturge and co-founder of the centre for dadaism in Zurich (Scholz, 1983: 167), in the Catholic journal Hochland (which still published articles on the subject in the 1960s) (Ball, 1983/24); Carl Eschweiler's essay Politische Theologie in the journal Religiöse Besinnung in 1931/32; a book called Der Monotheismus als politisches Problem; ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der politischen Theologie im Imperium Romanum (Monotheism as a political problem: a contribution to the history of political theology in the Roman empire; my translation), published 1935 by the Catholic professor of theology, Erik Peterson; after a noticeable period of silence, caused probably by the clouds of the Hitler regime (as a comment on which Peterson's book was read at the time of its appearance: Schmitt, 1970: 16) and the Second World War, Ernst Topitsch's 1955 essay Kosmos und Herrschaft, Ursprünge der politischen Theologie (Cosmos and power: origins of political theology; my translation) in the Catholic journal Wort und Wahrheit; the book Die Legitimität der Neuzeit of 1966 in which Hans Blumenberg attempted a scientific negation of any political theology (extended and revised edition 1974 under the title: Säkularisierung und Selbstbehauptung – Secularization and self-assertion; my translation; English translation: The legitimacy of the modern age: Blumenberg, 1983); Robert Hepp's dissertation on Politische Theologie und Theologische Politik: Studien zur Säkularisierung des Protestantismus im Weltkrieg und in der Weimarer Republik (Political theology and theological politics: studies on the secularization of protestantism during World War I and the Weimar republic; my translation), submitted 1967 at the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg; Hans Barion's article Weltgeschichtliche Machtform? Eine Studie zur Politischen Theologie des II. Vatikanischen Konzils (roughly translated as: A political power in world history? A study on the political theology of the second Vatican council) (1968), published in a volume of articles honouring Carl Schmitt's 80th birthday (such presents to highly regarded scholars by friends, colleagues and former students are a much respected German tradition); the protestant theologian Jürgen Moltmann's 1969 talk on Politische Theologie on the occasion of a further-training-day for German physicians; and, finally, one more article Politische Theologie, this one – directed particularly against the "new political theology" of J. B. Metz – published by Hans Maier, a leading German political scientist, in the February 1969 issue of Stimmen der Zeit.

Most of these authors seem to argue, in different ways and for different reasons, against the concept of a political theology, building up on Peterson's attempt to demonstrate, on the example of the Roman empire, the impossibility of any political theology (Schmitt, 1970). However, as Schmitt shows (1970: 52-60, 65-68, 94), even Peterson dismisses political theology only for monotheistic-trinitarian Christianity in absolute monarchies and concedes forms of political theology in other, non-Christian or pre-trinitarian Christian societies (an example is Peterson: 1983/33). According to Schmitt, political theology is an extremely "double-sided and bipolar field": "There are many political theologies, since there are on the one hand many different religions and on the other hand many different kinds and methods of politics" (1970: 51; my translation). Peterson's argument has since been refuted by Schmitt (1970) – not least because it was itself "a political answer to a political question" of the years around 1935 (Schmitt, 1970: 85; my translation), making use of a "highly theological alienation effect" (87; my translation) – as well as by the subsequent development of Christian political theologies, particularly in the guise of "liberation theology" in Latin America.

In the meantime – since 1935 – the two complexes left out of consideration [by Peterson], democracy and revolution, have thoroughly avenged themselves. The intense debate, conducted by Catholic and protestant theologians alike, on a 'Christian revolution' does not feel affected in any way by Peterson's verdict (Schmitt, 1970: 63; my translation).

George Schwab, Schmitt's translator (Schmitt, 1985), adds some authors to the list who wrote after 1969, and more favourably, for example 1983 José Maria Beneyto in his book Politische Theologie als politische Theorie (Political theology as political theory; my translation); and Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, Politische Theorie und politische Theologie: Bemerkungen zu ihrem gegenseitigen Verhältnis (Political theory and political theology: comments on their mutual relationship; my translation) (1983), in a book called Der Fürst dieser Welt: Carl Schmitt und die Folgen (Taubes, 1983) (roughly translated as: The prince of this world: Carl Schmitt and the consequences). The book was based on talks given on occasion of the meetings of a 1980 working group on "Religionstheorie und politische Theologie" (Theory of religion and political theology; my translation) (Taubes, 1983: 5) and was to be volume 1 of a series, commissioned by two German publishers, bearing the same name as the working group. The book refers back to the earlier publications by Ball and Peterson (publishing them in part) and contains many other articles on political theology such as (to give an indication of the breadth of the German debate) Politische Theologie als Theologie repolitisierter Religion (Political theology as theology of repoliticized religion; my translation) by Hermann Lübbe; Politischer Polytheismus – auch eine politische Theologie? (Political polytheism – also a political theology?; my translation) by Odo Marquard; Jenseits von politischer Theologie und unpolitischer Theologie: Zum Ansatz der "Dialektischen Theologie" (Beyond political theology and apolitical theology – on the approach of "dialectical theology"; my translation) by Dieter Schellong; as well as discussions of the "political theologies" of Hobbes, Hegel, Schmitt and Max Weber, among others.

The number of authors and the variety of contributions gathered in this book clearly demonstrate that even parallel to the rise of Metz' "new political theology" the lively debate on Schmitt's earlier concept of political theology did neither cease nor diminish and that Metz was merely taken as one expression of the general concept.

Further publications referred to in the book include the collections edited by Helmut Peukert, Diskussion zur "politischen Theologie" (Discussion on "political theology"; my translation) (1969), and by Ernst Feil and Rudolf Weth, Diskussion zur "Theologie der Revolution" (Discussion on the "theology of revolution"; my translation) (1969); the books by Hans Maier, Kritik der politischen Theologie (Criticism of political theology; my translation) (1970), and Klaus-Michael Kodalle, Politik als Macht und Mythos: Carl Schmitts "Politische Theologie" (Politics as power and myth: Carl Schmitt's "political theology"; my translation) (1973); as well as Robert Spaemann's chapter Theologie, Prophetie, Politik: Zur Kritik der politischen Theologie (Theology, prophecy, politics: on the criticism of political theology; my translation) (1977).

Beneyto (1983) lists two more collections, by Gustav E. Kafka and Ulrich Matz (Eds.), Zur Kritik der politischen Theologie (On the criticism of political theology; my translation) (1970 and/or 1973, both dates are given in different places of Beneyto's book), and by Manfred Baumotte, Hans-Walter Schütte, Falk Wagner and Horst Renz (Eds.), Kritik der politischen Theologie (1973), as well as two articles nowhere else noted – Heinrich Getzeny's Wieweit ist die politische Theologie des Reichs heute noch sinnvoll? (To what extent is the political theology of the Reich still useful [or meaningful] today?; my translation and italics), published in Hochland in 1933, and Martin Greiffenhagen's Zum Problem einer "Politischen Theologie" (On the problem of a "political theology"; my translation) in Zeitwende in 1961 – and a book-length publication in French: François Biot, Théologie du politique (1972).

2.3 The "new political theology" of J. B. Metz and its relation to Schmitt

While the authors and proponents of "liberation theology" in Latin America were not, to my knowledge, aware of the earlier German debate, or did not take note of it, another German, Johann Baptist Metz, appropriated the term "political theology" rather unceremoniously in the late 1960s (Zur Theologie der Welt was published in 1968) (Metz, 1969b: 107-140). It appears that among theologians it is his more than Schmitt's use of the term that we mean when we speak of "political theology" today (although Metz' approach is often also referred to as the "new political theology").

The wording of a paragraph in Schmitt (1970) referring to Metz lets one assume that, although Schmitt obviously had read Metz' book, the two had not met each other nor, indeed, had they had any contact by 1969: Maier's criticism, Schmitt writes, was directed against "what the Catholic theologian J. B. Metz presents openly as his political theology under this designation. ... Metz uses the term political theology expressly for this his cause" (Schmitt, 1970: 31; my translation; Schmitt's italics). Metz does not seem to have sought Schmitt's counsel on using the latter's terminology. Given the reputation Schmitt enjoyed in post-World War II Germany, and his high visibility (see Lilla, 1997: 39), this is not easily to be explained. An acknowledgement of his intellectual indebtedness to Schmitt is not readily to be found in Metz' writings (a fact others have noticed as well: see for example Lübbe, 1983: 48; Maier, 1970: 14). A very short reference is contained in a rather obscure early article (1969: 278) where Metz refers to Schmitt as the author of "classical political theology" (my translation; presumably as opposed to Metz' "new political theology") and accuses "classical political theology" of being ambiguous in its criticism of society.

Most likely we have to seek the reason for Metz' reluctance to acknowledge Schmitt in a change of political direction that Metz gave the term "political theology". We may have to understand it as a kind of Marxist appropriation of the means of (in this case: intellectual) production. (Equally, we could call it a symptom of the politics of theology – or academia in general.) Schmitt used the term "political theology" to designate the authors of the Catholic counter-revolution – Donoso Cortés, Bonald, and de Maistre, "authors ... who were theists" and attempted "to support the personal sovereignty of the monarch ideologically, with the aid of analogies from a theistic theology" (1985/22: 37). They were anti-liberal and anti-democratic, Schmitt argues, in that they

considered continuous discussion a method of circumventing responsibility and of ascribing to freedom of speech and of the press an excessive importance that in the final analysis permits the decision to be evaded. ... The essence of liberalism is negotiation, a cautious half measure, in the hope that the definitive dispute, the decisive bloody battle, can be transformed into a parliamentary debate and permit the decision to be suspended forever in an everlasting discussion (63).

They opposed all "contradictions and compromises". Liberalism existed for them "only in that short interim period in which it was possible to answer the question 'Christ or Barabbas?' with a proposal to adjourn or appoint a commission of investigation" (62).

The kind of economic-technical thinking that prevails today is no longer capable of perceiving a political idea. ... Political ideas are generally recognized only when groups can be identified that have a plausible economic interest in turning them to their advantage. Whereas, on the one hand, the political vanishes into the economic or technical-organizational, on the other hand the political dissolves into the everlasting discussion of cultural and philosophical-historical commonplaces ... The core of the political idea, the exacting moral decision, is evaded in both. The true significance of those counter-revolutionary philosophers of the state lies precisely in the consistency with which they decide. They heightened the moment of the decision to such an extent that the notion of legitimacy, their starting point, was finally dissolved (65).

Schmitt calls this "decisionism". Its "logical conclusion" for Donoso Cortés, once he had found "that the period of monarchy had come to an end because there no longer were kings and no one would have the courage to be king in any way other than by the will of the people", was for him to advocate "a political dictatorship" (66). "It is the solution that Hobbes also reached by the same kind of decisionist thinking, though mixed with mathematical relativism. Autoritas, non veritas facit legem" (52; his italics).

Metz, on the other hand, went on to write a book, Faith in History and Society (1980), that appears to have been heavily influenced by Marxism (Metz does not deny this – see, for example, his remarks in 1980: 53; one would be hard pressed to say if the name of Jesus or Marx is evoked more often throughout the book).

In 1968, writing still comparatively temperate, Metz himself defined "political theology" thus (in a way not incompatible with Schmitt):

I understand political theology, first of all, to be a critical correction of present-day theology inasmuch as this theology shows an extreme privatizing tendency (a tendency, that is, to center upon the private person rather than 'public,' 'political' society) (1969b: 107).

And he insists: "The deprivatizing of theology is the primary critical task of political theology" (110; his italics). Our very existence is for Metz political and

any existential and personal theology that does not understand existence as a political problem in the widest sense of the word, must inevitably restrict its considerations to an abstraction. ... With this, the positive task of political theology comes to light. It is, to determine anew the relation between religion and society, between Church and societal 'publicness,' between eschatological faith and societal life (111; his italics).

"Every eschatological theology, therefore, must become a political theology, that is, a (socio-)critical theology" (115; his italics). He holds that "our intention is not, once again, to mix faith and 'politics' in a reactionary manner" (112-113) – and, saying this, he may well have thought of Schmitt (he later refers to Donoso Cortés, Bonald and de Maistre, among other "traditionalist" authors: 1980: 20). Rhetorically he asks:

When was the [Catholic] Church truly an institution of critical liberty? When was she in fact critically revolutionary? When was she not simply counterrevolutionary resentful, and nagging in her relation to the societal world? (1969b: 117)

In this context we ought to expose that it was Bonald who said "reality is in society and in history [in der Gesellschaft und in der Geschichte]" (in Schmitt, 1970: 36; my translation and italics) – knowing the title of Metz' most famous book one might suspect here another case of unaccounted-for appropriation.

Before entering into a discussion of the left-leaning writings of the "new political theology", "liberation theology", and related theologies, let us just remember once more that Carl Schmitt's original concept of "political theology" is much broader than to cover only the revolutionary movements of Latin America, Asia and Africa. Something we may, outside the German-speaking countries, not sufficiently have taken note of. As Metz said himself: we must though "prevent the Church from being uncritically identified with specific political ideologies and thus having it sink to the level of a purely political religion" – by which, of course, he meant right-wing ideologies (1980: 89), but we may as well understand the one-sided identification with his brand of political theology. (Whenever Metz speaks of the "Church" in his writings it is the Roman-Catholic Church he refers to, and his political theology is in the first instance meant to rouse this denomination.) Rightly, Schmitt noted that "in the changing friend-enemy-formations of world history theology can politically just as well become an object of the revolution as of the counter-revolution" (1970: 22; my translation).

In Faith in History and Society (in German-speaking theological circles fondly called "GGG", shorthand for Glaube in Geschichte und Gesellschaft), Metz, a student of Karl Rahner and professor of fundamental theology at the University of Münster, set out to draw up what he called a "practical fundamental theology", or a theology "that operates subject to the primacy of praxis" (1980: 50) – the latter consisting of "communication and action" (51) –, that does not subordinate "praxis to theory or the idea" (50). Today, this book is generally acknowledged as a standard work of modern theology.

Nevertheless we should not spare it the criticism that, in my opinion, the book and its author richly deserve. First and foremost, there are its many contradictions. For example, Metz demands a "biographical dogmatic theology", that is, an articulation of the subjective mystical biography of a theologian in his theology rather than a vain attempt at scientific objectivity (220) – while on the other hand slamming the "middle-class, privatistic subjectivity which led to the crisis in Christianity and the Church and which therefore not so easily can be given theological honours" (36). He demands a restoration of the "radically Christian concept of praxis" (28) and insists that theology "must again and again be interrupted by praxis and experience" and transcend "the narrow sphere of professional theology" (59), while we cannot but notice that his is a thoroughly theoretical approach that does neither enlighten us as to its author's "mystical biography of religious experience" (220) nor refer to any concrete situations and realities of suffering save in the most general and abstract terms. Suffice it to say that no reader will be moved, by this book, to any practical action.

I somewhat mistrust the English translation as I do not re-cognize terms that are quite central to Metz' argument. Can one really translate "Bürger" as "middle-class subject" (29; my italics)? In German the word's meaning is surely closer to "bourgeois" (the educated and cultivated lower upper class of times past rather than the middle class of our times; Shanks, 1991: 216, footnote no. 2, seems to confirm this observation). I also think I have not come across derivatives such as the "bürgerlich-egoistische" (bourgeois-egotistic; my translation and italics) subject. What happened to the catchy slogan "Glaube als Praxis" (faith as praxis; my translation and italics)? And "verlorene Zeit" (Metz, 1992: 165; my italics) is not "forgotten time" (Metz, 1980: 169) – rather "lost time" (as in Proust).

Favourably we can notice that the English version reads somewhat easier than the heavy-handed German text. The translator spares us the worst of Metz' offences against (the German) language – such as his "Pointe des Christentums" (1992: 120 – the punchline of Christianity; my translation and italics), "Geschichte mit reiner Weste" (127 – history with a clean waistcoat, figurative for: a clean record; my translation and italics; actually, in German, one speaks of a clean conscience but a white waistcoat) or a "pausbäckig-kleinbürgerliche" idea of progress (195 – chubby-bourgeois; my translation and italics, but in all its absurdity and demeaning undertones not really translatable). Many terms Metz coined that are not even to be found in German dictionaries or dictionaries of foreign words in use in the German language as well as terms he misused (for example "imperatorisch" instead of "imperativ") have not found their way into the English translation either. All these mistakes, in German, are noticeably to the disadvantage of Metz himself and the power of persuasion of his argument. Under the crushing weight of the linguistic ballast much remains vague.

The most devastating critique, however, is being levelled by Fierro:

Unfortunately repetition rather than in-depth treatment is the characteristic feature of most political theologies. The work of Metz, for example, is very repetitive. What he says in two or three works seems to be repeated ad infinitum in all his other writings. Some articles seem so similar to each other that the reader can only wonder whether one and the same text has been slightly corrected by the author, whether he is dealing with different versions of the same text, or simply whether the author is being exploited by his publishers (1977: 130).

2.4 The socio-political analysis of Christian "political theology"

2.4.1 Metz

Our interest lies with the common ideology and socio-political analysis arguably underlying Christian political theologies – including European "political theology", "new political theology" and "theology of hope", Latin American "liberation theology" and "theology of revolution", Philippine "theology of struggle", Korean "minjung theology" and African "black theology". An analysis of the writings of major representatives of these theological movements may lead to the emergence of common aspects and characteristics of Christian "political theology".

Already in 1922, Schmitt advanced a seemingly very contemporary analysis of Western society:

Today nothing is more modern than the onslaught against the political. American financiers, industrial technicians, Marxist socialists, and anarchic-syndicalist revolutionaries unite in demanding that the biased rule of politics over unbiased economic management be done away with. There must no longer be political problems, only organizational-technical and economic-sociological tasks. ... The modern state seems to have actually become what Max Weber envisioned: a huge industrial plant (1985/22: 65).

Metz chose as the starting point of his political theology a criticism of the ideological upholder of Western "affluent society" (1980: 103). He propagates the rise of a "subject who is not yet established" (28), fundamentally different from the Western middle-class citizen whose "practical understanding is orientated almost exclusively ... on the satisfaction of his own needs" (29) and "control of nature in the interest of the market" (43), who follows "the laws of profit and success" (37) – centring around "[p]roduction, trade and consumption" and "the principle of exchange" –, who is "private" and "individual" and "no longer sustained by any all-embracing traditions, let alone religious traditions" (35).

From the political point of view, this results in his claim to self-determination and self-government on the one hand and a precarious separation between private and public interests on the other. Religion has become a private matter. It is possible to make use of it to satisfy cultural needs, but it is no longer necessary to have it in order to be a subject (35).

Ball shows that again already Schmitt deplored that "the religion of modern European society" had become "a religion of private matter [Privatsache] and private property" (Ball, 1983/24: 113; my translation and italics; Spaemann holds that "the precedence of saving one's own soul over against changing any worldly conditions" is inherent in the New Testament: 1977: 67; my translation; de Quervain, 1931, stresses that although the individual human being stands in the centre of faith – rather than a people or community –, humans are united in being part of creation). This despised "middle-class subject" (Metz, 1980: 29), true to Metz' nature, is a theoretical construct, it seems, rather than a human presence deserving of Christian consideration:

Theology, which believes that it is bound to defend the contemporary human subject uncritically as a religious subject, is, in this perspective, simply a late reflection of this middle-class religion ('bürgerliche Religion') (33; his or translator's italics).

The world we Westerners inhabit is defined by Metz as a "technological and scientific culture which produces apathy and in which the death of the subject, the destruction of language and the end of history are anticipated, at least in theory" (74; interestingly, Metz predates with this remark Fukuyama's The end of history thesis by fifteen or twenty years, see Fukuyama, 1989 and 1992). In this time of "genetic manipulation and a computer ideology" (Metz, 1980: 103), an "all-encroaching and anonymous production process" (101) "prefabricates man's pattern of life and produces a weariness with human identity that eats at man's soul" (221). The "form of freedom" of these societies "with the liberal pluralism" "is increasingly formal and without content" (104). "The eschaton of that society is boredom" (92; again a remark strangely reminiscent of Fukuyama's later writings, see for example Fukuyama, 1989: 18).

We are becoming ever more conscious of the dangers and antagonisms that arise when technological and economic processes are left to their own nature. Laws and our political and social control systems break down: dying cities, ruined environments, population explosions, chaotic information channels, an increasingly aggressive and vicious intensification of the North-South conflict, ... and so on (Metz, 1980: 100).

Early in his seminal work Metz refers to what has since become known as the phenomenon of "globalization":

Socio-political and economic relationships are becoming increasingly interdependent and for this reason no situation can be determined in the concrete without considering this global aspect. Any attempt to obtain a practical result without taking the global aspect into consideration will only be dubiously abstract (4).

Already in the 1970s,

[g]lobal interventions have become the concrete theme of political action. This is why politics can no longer be conducted simply within the framework of national action and exclusively with the interest of national security, which are often ideologically motivated, in mind (103).

This also involves the "globalisation" of theology away from its situation in "middle-class, Central-European society" (4) and acceptance of the "world-wide scale in political theology" (12) and its "global significance" (103):

The conflict between North and South that is so extensively discussed nowadays cannot be defined or resolved in regional terms, nor can it be neutralized by the Church and theologians as a purely political and economic event. It is above all a conflict with significant effects on the one Church throughout the world (4).

Metz stresses that there are "various points of contact and opportunities for a critical exchange of ideas between the political theology and the theology of liberation" (11):

This applies not only to their mutual insistence on an analysis of the situation on a world-wide scale, but also to many important elements of the theology ... These include a concentration on the primacy of praxis, the basic category of solidarity and a theology of the subject based on the idea of the whole of mankind in solidarity and subjection to God (11).

This solidarity means "to suffer the sufferings of others" (95). It includes the sharing of "sorrow and melancholy" and present "suffering" (57) with "the living and future generations" (76) and "openness to past suffering, in other words, as solidarity with the dead and those who have been overcome" (57) – remembering the "sacrifices of history" (58) and that "the happiness of the descendants cannot compensate for the suffering of the ancestors" (75) – as well as an "attitude of resistance to the interiorization and privatization of these pathic forms of expression of social praxis" (57).

Can the rich churches of the North only redress the balance between them and the poor churches of the South that has been destroyed by what has been recognized as the mechanics of exploitation and structural injustice by means of almsgiving? (70-71)

In Metz' opinion, "the struggle for God and the struggle to enable all men to be free subjects does not operate in the opposite direction, but proportionally in the same direction" (62). "Any theology that aims to justify Christian faith and its tradition critically" has to address questions of "public life, justice and freedom" (88). Though "there is certainly religion in an authentic form even when there is oppression" (71), political theology aims at "speaking about God by making the connection between the Christian message and the modern world visible" (89):

[T]he Church must understand and justify itself as the public witness and bearer of the tradition of a dangerous memory of freedom in the 'systems' of our emancipative society. ... In faith, Christians accomplish the memoria passionis, mortis et resurrectionis Jesu Christi. ... This memoria Jesu Christi ... anticipates the future as a future of those who are oppressed, without hope and doomed to fail. ... Christian faith can and must, in my opinion, be seen in this way as a subversive memory (90-91; his or translator's italics).

2.4.2 Political theologies in Europe and North America

At the borderline of "political theology and theological politics" (Schmitt, 1965: 53; my translation), political theology is seen as controversial because interests often take precedence over against academic rigour, claims Taubes (1983: 5; my translation). Richard Faber agrees with Blumenberg that "the term 'political theology' generally conceals that what is meant is 'theology as politics'" (Faber, 1983: 86; my translation; see Blumenberg, 1983: 97-98). Böckenförde warns of "[t]he danger of the transition from argumentatively justified theology to merely engaged theological politics (often inspired by Marxism)" (1983: 21; my translation) and Marquard sees the "new – eschatological – 'political theology'" as burdened with an "immense blindness for the reality of the political (through infantilization) and ... reduction of love of neighbour [Nächstenliebe] in favour of love of the furthest [Fernstenliebe]" (1983: 78; my translation and italics). Barion argues that the eschatological nature of the Catholic Church means that she has "no political ideal, only political goals" (1965: 162; my translation). Spaemann gives the example of how the goals of the Church in post-World War II Germany – anticommunism, social market economy, confessional schools and state funding for ecclesiastical welfare institutions, among others – led to her supporting the Christian-Democratic Party (1977: 58). In this light, "the political decisions of the Church must by definition take the form of an interim" (Barion, 1965: 162; my translation). It could be argued that both Schmitt's "classical" and Metz' "new" political theology may then be compatible with faith if seen in their historic context (although Spaemann claims that the new political theology sought to break with the sort of political Christianity, and particularly political Catholicism, of 1950s Germany: 1977: 58-59). Maier lists a number of cases in which the Church did side with liberal and revolutionary movements, such as in the Belgians' fight for independence in 1830, or "healing" (Heilung) the Bolivarian Revolution in Latin America in 1827 by appointing new bishops for Greater Columbia (1970: 75). Maier understands political theology "as a means of a contemporary hermeneutics" that analyses society in the critical light of the Gospel and attempts "to formulate the eschatological message under the conditions of today's society" (12; my translation). He sees the "new political theology" as a "secularised 'dialectic' variant of the old one" (103; my translation) – "instead of order, change, 'God's action in history', is being theologised" (62; my translation). He criticizes that the most progressive currents of theology, such as the new political theology and theology of revolution, had already forgotten the important message of the Second Vatican Council, a few years earlier, that unity in faith can go together with plurality in political belief and that, in particular, the faithful as citizens, acting in private capacity or as associations, and the Church as an institution may differ in political convictions (13; see also Barion, 1968, particularly 16). The quest for democratization of the Catholic Church Maier calls "naïve" in its assumption of a rule of homogeneity according to which "the Church can and must not be constituted in any other way than the state" (100; my translation). Metz, in his eyes, uncritically adopts Marxist patterns of interpretation (34). Rohrmoser speaks of a "theologisation of Marxism and a sociologisation of theology" (1968: 618; my translation).

The importance of political theology for political theory is highlighted by Böckenförde who says that "if God exists, if a divine revelation has happened, if theological statements contain truth" this must have an impact on politics (1983: 17; my translation). Barion, with Schmitt, derives the role of the Church as a challenger for political authority from the fact that she represents "'civitas humana' and 'Christ himself, personally, the God who has become man in historical reality'". The Church thus constitutes itself as inherently political (1968: 14; my translation). Metz' vision of the Church is "a Church in which the people have emerged from their natural collective patterns of identity as a nation, race and class", have become "a new people and have found a new identity in the presence of God" (Metz, 1980: 151). Kodalla, referring to later writings of Schmitt's, thinks though that "with progressing de-theologisation the historic religiosity of Europe, the Christian faith, has lost its political power" (1973: 53; my translation; his italics). Schmitt himself says, in 1970, that "the de-theologisation contains a de-politicisation in the sense that the world stops being 'politomorph'" (1970: 119; my translation). In a world without theology, there will be no political participation either, it seems. Koslowski holds that non-dogmatic theological reflection (such as "political theology as analogy") might help to make political theory more reasonable (1983: 34; my translation; his italics).

Maier points out that there are no clear definitions distinguishing "political theology" and "theology of revolution" and that both very much merge into one another, with some authors using the terms interchangeably (1970: 62-65; Metz claims though to have critically distanced himself and the new political theology from certain forms of "theology of revolution": 1969a: 280). The main proponent of theology of revolution, Moltmann, to confuse things even further, called his book The gospel of liberation (1973) and generally seems to be speaking of global, rather than Western, phenomena. He aims at "liberating the internally and externally oppressed man for faith, love, and hope ... in the name of the crucified and resurrected Christ, and in the name of his smallest brother in our world" (1973: 11) because "[t]here is no redemption of the soul without a liberation of the body" (22). "Man is subjected bodily to death, sicknesses, hunger, exploitation, and degradation by other men" (88).

[W]e often hear the cry of the hungry in Biafra and South America and other war-torn and disaster-stricken countries. However, there are more unheard cries and requests in the world than there are ears to hear them or hands to fulfil them (20).

Without wanting us to be "accusers of other men, of the bad, godless society" (40), Moltmann, who conveys the impression of being more religiously inspired than Metz, passionately prays (in writing): "Out of the depths the dead in Viet Nam cry to you, and also those who have killed them. ... Out of the depths cry to you the hungry in Africa, Asia, and South America; and also the satiated in Europe who let them hunger" (24; his italics).

In the West,

[f]reedom and living space are there for the clever and for those who have arrived. But where is freedom for the children on our streets, for the aged, the handicapped and the injured? The old in our rest homes, the sick in our hospitals, the prisoners in our jails, the handicapped in our institutions (61)?

There is "apartheid politics, persecution of Communists, Democratic hunts, persecution of Christians, anti-Semitism, racial hate, and so on" (67; his italics). There is "idolization of the living standard, of nation, of race, of progress, etc." (101). People are "brought to sacrifice to the fetishism of goods and consumption" (83) that "impoverish man in the search for pleasure and fulfilment and let him return empty". Moltmann asks us to destroy the "many idols in our lives" (26) because "the destruction of hate and power begins with the liberation from fetishes, idols, and person cults which promise security and lead into death " (102). According to him, they are "idols without future" (26; on "idolatry" and fetishism see Hinkelammert, 1983 and 1986).

Because "religion is misused for the purpose of keeping the poor quiet so that the sufferers will be satisfied with unrighteousness and not protest it strongly" (Moltmann, 1973: 80), we should "break out of our churches and out of the anxious egoism of our nations and develop a new piety of solidarity with all the damned of this earth", Moltmann says (88). "Theology of revolution is ... not a theology for bishops, but a lay theology of the suffering and fighting Christians of this world" and part of it is "a revolution of theology" (1969: 68; my translation). Like Metz, Moltmann urges us to "understand again the 'revolutionary' character of the Bible. ... We must obtain again the sharpness of the gospel if we want to spread the freedom of the Crucified out into this chaotic world" (1973: 90). "Christianity is not only a religion of salvation, but at the same time an encompassing revolution of earthly affairs" (126).

The "God of Hope" of Romans 15:13 "steps over the boundary of race, in which man loathes man, and the boundaries of class and strata in society. He despises the difference between black and white, poor and rich, educated and uneducated" (26-27). "Jesus himself proclaimed the kingdom to the poor, but not only to the poor. He proclaimed it to the rich also" (41). He "became an intense partisan of the weak, the discriminated against, and the hopeless" (89). Too often, however, the faithful do not follow him (28), refusing to be "agents of reconciliation in this society" (39-40). Moltmann fears that suffering, migration and (Western) multiculturalism will lead to dire consequences if not tempered by "hope": "The more we grow together today into one world, the more men of different types mix together, the more dangerous will this be considered by society" (67). The exclusive "friend/enemy-thinking", promulgated by Schmitt (1996/32) and fuelled by "hate", comes with "apocalyptic terrorism which pushes toward 'the last battle'" (Moltmann, 1973: 67). "The law of life of a Christian community", according to him, demands however the "'acceptance of the other' in his differentness" (91).